Research Paper Sample: Sexual Offending Theories

A sexual offender or sexual abuser is an individual who has engaged in a sex-related crime. Technically, what constitutes as a sexual offense varies in different places depending on the cultural and legal influences. Serin et al., (2011) states that often, most people who are convicted of sexual offenses have a conviction with a sexual nature. However, in some cases, some offenders are sentenced for a mere infraction of a section of the sexual law that functions within a sexual category. Some of the cases that are classified as sexual offenses include sending or receiving indecent material in the form of SMS messages (referred to as texting), and a relationship involving minors and young adults that results in sexual exploitation of the minor among others. There are various reasons for sex offenses that most of them stem from psychological and emotional issues. This essay will discuss some of the major sex offending theories that explain sexual offense and the offenders reasoning.

Literature Review

There are many forms of sexual offenses that are grave sexual crimes such as sexual assault, statutory rape, bestiality, rape, incest, and sexual nuisance. Zimring (2010) mentions that in the United States some legislative laws categorize certain sexual offenses which are considered less severe as serious sex crimes that require registration of the offender. In some states, for example, public urination or sexual intercourse in a public place are classified as sex crimes that necessitate filing. According to Zilney and Zilney (2009) states that the term sexual predator is mainly given to the kinds of sexual offenders who are involved in severe or repeated sex offenses and are some of the worst kinds of sexual offenders. In the modern world of technological advancement, there occur newer types of sexual crimes that are prompting many jurisdictions to adjust their legislative laws to cater to such special cases of sexual misconduct (McAlister, 2014). These laws are also modified to ensure that they do not over punish sex offenders and instead focus on the crimes that involve a victim (Zilney & Zilney, 2009). Some of the more modern types of sexual offenses that are facilitated by the advancement of technology include digital obscenity that mostly involves child pornography.

The level of recidivism among sexual offenders is lower than the conventional belief among the public. The results of a study conducted by researchers in 2002 indicated that there was a relatively small rearrests rate of sexual offender who is released from incarceration. The results showed that in the first three years after their release, only about 1 out of every 19 offenders were arrested for an additional sexual offense (Laws, 2016). According to Laws (2016), in the United States, the rate of sexual crime re-offense is indicated as being lesser than all other criminalities excluding murder. A research study conducted in 15 states also reached the same conclusion to support the report. A sex offender registry is a system established in various jurisdictions that are aimed at enabling authorities to track the movement and engagements of sex offenders after they are released from prison (Breitkreuz & Canada, 2011). In some jurisdictions particularly the United States, the data stored in the registry system is made accessible to the public mostly through an integrated website that incorporates all information relating to sex offenders. In many jurisdictions primarily in the United States, there are further restrictions that are directed to the sexual offenders such as housing. The offenders on parole or probation could also be subjected to even harsher restrictions that are not applicable to other released sexual offenders (Matravers, 2013). Some of the limitations made in such cases include constraint from being in a particular proximity to minors which could also include the closeness of the residence to a child care or schooling institution. There is also the restriction against possessing any objects or property that may be of interests to minors such as toys. Matravers (2013) mentions that in addition to schools, some sex offenders are restricted from areas of worship, recreation facilities, nursing homes, and even libraries. These restrictions are made to ensure that the offenders are not tempted or enabled to lure minors and possibly commit another sexual offense. However, some of these limitations vary from state to state depending on the laws present in that jurisdiction. Some of the sexual offender registries are also only available to security authorities and law enforcers instead of open to public viewing in different states (Breitkreuz & Canada, 2011). Many of the restrictions made against sexual offenders by some states are highly criticized by human rights reformist and related civil groups. These associations champion for more freedom for the released sexual offenders to enable them some room to rehabilitate fully without associated stigma from society (Haralson & Cordeiro, 2011). They also state that public viewing of sexual offenders data places the released offenders in danger of being attacked or even killed by vengeful people.

Various conduct adjustment programs have been indicated to decrease re-offense among sexual offenders. Usually, such programs employ multiple ideologies of applied behavior analysis with two of the most popular showing positive results. The first method utilizes operant conditioning approaches that use a reward and punishment system to condition new behaviors in the individuals (Ryan et al., 2013). The second method employs the respondent conditioning measures such as aversion therapy. Haralson and Cordeiro (2011) mention that many of the behavioral adjustment programs for sexual offenders apply covert sensitization which is a popular form of aversion therapy that are considered to have many ethical challenges and critics alike. However, Yantzi (2009) states that besides the ethical problems and criticism, the programs have proven effective in reducing the rate of recidivism by up to 20 percent. Even with its success, the application of the aversion treatment is still a debated matter with moral problems relating to the specialized training of behavioral investigation.

A biochemical castration method is used in some countries as a treatment for male sexual offenders which unlike physical castration is reversible through stopping the regular medication. Yantzi (2009) states that for male sex offenders who have serious or extreme paraphilias, physical castration proves to be the best method of managing their condition. The physical castration approach has proven to be effective with a record 20-year recidivism rate of less than 3 percent within 20 years after the release of sexual offenders (Yantzi, 2009). The method is also considered not to affect the lifespan of the individuals when compared to uncastrated men. According to Yantzi (2009) therapists employ different means to evaluate the recidivism risk of individual sex offenders. The tools used to assess the risk consider the various aspects that have been empirically associated with sexual recidivism risk. Researchers believe some static factors to be age, the sum of prior sexual crimes, the victims gender, connection to the victim, and pointers of psychopathy and divergent stimulation (Bartol et al., 2011). Dynamic features comprise the offenders compliance and reception of the treatment provided. By examining all the factors that instigate recidivism among sexual offenders, the researchers and relevant practitioners can acquire a more comprehensive view of the emergence or instigation risk as compared to static or dynamic effects alone.

Sexual Offending Theories

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive distortion is considered a major determining factor in the etiology of sexual offenses especially those involving minors. The theory suggests that sex offenders cognition distortions arise at the edge of implicit motivation and reasoning (Crow, 2012). Cognitive distortion in sex offenders is precise or overall opinions and attitudes that go against conventional acknowledged standards of rationality that have been related to the onset and maintenance of sexual offending. Challenging cognitive distortions has become a key component in the treatment of sex offenders and an area of interest for theoretical and empirical scientific researchers aimed at understanding sexual offending. However, the efforts made towards understanding and theorizing cognitive distortions have faced numerous setbacks. The challenges faced are partly caused by the intricate nature and effectiveness for the sex offenders (In Boer, 2017). Some of the issues that arise when conceptualizing the cognitive phenomena include the questioning of the statement justification and whether they are s a product of cognitive dissonance or denial (Serin et al., 2011). There is also the question of whether these cognitive beliefs characterize a more global belief system.

According to In Gannon and In Ward (2017), the Cognitive Distortion Hypothesis offers a detailed and comprehensive explanation of the etiology of distorted cognitions and their application in the sexual offense procedures. The Cognitive Distortion Hypothesis suggests that the instigation of sexual offending is developed when young pubescent males do not learn how to control their sexual arousal from unsuitable stimuli (Crow, 2012). Instead., irregular sexual arousal patterns are created because of fantasizing sexual acts through self-pleasuring and orgasm. Without advice and support from close friends or guardians to help encourage appropriate behaviors, these individuals grow into adults with advanced deviant sexual stimulation tendencies and patterns. The adult sex offender may then start to act contrary to societal norms which is where the proposed cognitive alteration emerges.

Hudson-Allez (2011) suggests that sex offenders experience a state of mental struggle that is created by the inconsistency of their deviant thoughts and behaviors, and how these thoughts and actions are parallel to societal norms. The effect of undergoing this cognitive struggle produces aversive heights of apprehension and complex feelings that encompass embarrassment and guilt. Beauregard (2017) states that the sex offenders twist their cognitions to align them with their deviant views, imaginations, and behavior. For example, when a child sexual offender engages in sexual interaction with a minor, they know that it is unfitting conduct and are conflicted by the recognition of their wrong actions. To alleviate the high levels of cognitive anguish that mostly involve guilt and shame, these individuals will justify the offending to seem more tolerable within the societal realms of decency. For example, the individual may place blame on the victim for seducing them by dressing in revealing costumes. In Boer (2017) suggests that these actions ease the cognitive struggle and successive agony by perceiving deviant thoughts and behaviors within tolerable confines and downgrade the significance of social norms. Under the Cognitive Theory, these alleviation behaviors can be assumed to be used by the sexual offenders to continue engaging in their wrong, deviant behaviors.

In Gannon and In Ward (2017) suggest that cognitive distortions are reinforced when the offenders observe the incidence of encouraging results or the lack of adverse penalties for their offending sexual behavior. The lack of adverse consequence after a sexual offense by an individual against a minor can be assumed to be because of the seductive methods and preparation process with measured increments of inappropriate sexual behavior. It can also be because of the childs lack of resistance which is usually caused by their trust...